Why Were So Many Countries Colonized by Europeans?

The Age of Discovery (the late 1400s to the late 1600s) centered on seafaring exploration by European powers such as Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands, which colonized countries all over the globe. The 1800s and early 1900s then saw a new wave of imperialism, in which many of these powers further expanded their territorial holdings. There are several reasons why this widespread colonization occurred. First, spreading Christianity often motivated exploration. Colonization also proved enormously lucrative in terms of resources. Later on, racism played a key role in continued colonial oppression. Finally, geographic and disease-based differences gave Europe particular advantages over other continents, allowing for the colonization of most of the rest of the world.

Religion

The history of religious-based military campaigns starts as early as 1095 with the Crusades. Later on, spreading Christianity became a significant motivation for European explorers, and historian Adriaan van Oss suggests that it was the main reason behind Spain's colonization of the Americas. In fact, the Vatican officially instructed the Spanish to convert the Indigenous populations to Catholicism.

Later on, the French started similar journeys in North America around the mid-1600s. At the same time, Christian missionaries played a big role in the Scramble for Africa in the 1800s. Some missionaries went to Africa because they truly believed in offering salvation through conversion. However, many European countries also used these missionaries as a way to gain a presence on the continent, which helped set the stage for colonization. Overall, religion was one of the reasons why Europe expanded its reach around the world.

Economics

Economics also played a big part in why Europeans traveled to so many countries. The Spanish colonizers, for example, were often looking to find gold and silver deposits across South America, Central America, and Mexico. Additionally, colonization helped establish trade routes between the Americas and Europe. The silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries was actually one of the early steps toward forming a connected, global economy.

The French and British became involved in the North American fur trade in the 1600s. Perhaps most infamously, the Transatlantic Slave Trade began in the 1500s, in which Europeans bought or captured Africans and transported them to the Americas. However, rather than being a mere economic endeavor, this practice also reflects another reason for European colonization, racism.

Racism

In the 1800s, scientific racism— the belief that certain races are inherently superior based on supposed empirical evidence—gained significant influence among European elites. For example, French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau questioned whether the brains of Huron Indians, in their undeveloped state, contained the same intellect as that of an English or French person, asking, "So the brain of a Huron Indian contains in the undeveloped form an intellect… (the) same as an Englishman or a Frenchman? Why then…has he not invented printing or steam power?” This ideology later served to justify colonialism. A notable example is the 19th-century French colonial effort in Africa, which was framed around a 'civilizing mission'—the idea that it was their duty to bring civilization to peoples deemed uncivilized.

Even following the First World War, with notions of self-determination now dominating international relations, colonialism continued. Indeed, the League of Nations dictated that certain regions, like the former Ottoman Empire, were not ready for self-determination. Therefore, European powers like the United Kingdom (UK) and France oversaw portions of these regions to guide them toward independence. Known as League of Nations mandates, they were essentially governed as colonies. Moreover, the justifications for these mandates were often rooted in deeply paternalistic and racist perceptions of non-Europeans' inability to self-govern.

Geography

One of the biggest reasons why Europe colonized so much of the world is geography. Their position gave them a distinct advantage over continents such as Africa, North America, South America, and Australia. Geographer and historian Jared Diamond posited that, rather than any differences in ingenuity and intelligence, it was mere opportunity and necessity due to circumstantial happenstance that led to this phenomenon.

For example, the widespread presence of natural borders like mountain ranges and rivers in Europe contributed to the development of different states, leading to competition that prevented technological stagnation. Moreover, animals native to Africa, like zebras, elephants, and antelopes proved impossible to domesticate, as opposed to many of the animals native to Europe like dogs, horses, pigs, cows, and goats. This allowed for the easier plowing of land and transportation of goods, dramatically improving agriculture. In short, European geographical advantages led to technological, agricultural, and military innovations, giving rise to the conditions that made seafaring exploration possible.

Diseases

During the colonization of the Americas, European diseases caused the deaths of about 90% of the Indigenous populations. However, this does not fully explain why diseases native to North America did not similarly devastate Europeans. To clarify these unequal impacts, Jared Diamond suggested that most European diseases originated in densely populated urban areas. He also notes that many Europeans lived near domesticated animals, which facilitated the transfer of animal diseases to humans. These factors led to more lethal pathogens in Europe than in the Americas, resulting in epidemics like the Black Death. Over time, surviving Europeans passed this natural immunity to their children. Consequently, Europeans became immune to many diseases that affected Indigenous peoples, making colonization of North and South America easier due to biological advantages.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a variety of factors led to widespread European colonization by key players such as Spain, Portugal, England, and the Netherlands. Religion was a guiding principle for many, as was financial gain. By the 19th century, racist perceptions of non-Europeans also played a role in continued colonial exploitation. Finally, geographic and disease-based advantages made European colonization possible in the first place.