How did World War I impact the Ottoman Empire?

World War I was one of the defining events of the twentieth century, profoundly affecting nearly every country involved. This was particularly true for the Ottoman Empire, which was unable to survive the conflict. Despite the empire facing significant problems, its ability to fight a war on four fronts for four years suggests it was more resilient than is often believed. The impact of World War I on the Ottoman Empire remains a key area of historical inquiry.

The "Sick Man Of Europe"

The Ottoman Empire was considered the "sick man of Europe" for decades before World War I. This was the case for several reasons. First, its military was very outdated. During the first centuries of its existence, the empire boasted one of the best military forces in Europe and the Middle East. However, by the 1700s and 1800s, its once elite military corps, the Janissaries, had become ineffective, often revolting when sultans attempted reforms that threatened their privileges. While the Janissaries were abolished in 1826, centuries of military stagnation left the Ottomans behind most European countries.

The Ottoman Empire also faced significant economic problems. One reason for these issues was the decentralised nature of Ottoman governance, which gave significant power to local elites called "notables". While this system was useful for rapidly accumulating territory or preventing revolts, it made tax collection difficult, since these notables often kept the revenues for themselves. European imperialism was also a major source of economic problems. This was due to the weak Ottoman military, which allowed stronger European powers to dictate the terms of trade agreements. Such agreements left the Ottomans with little meaningful tariff revenue, forcing them to take out loans at extremely high interest rates from European banks.

Despite these issues, the Ottoman Empire made some reforms throughout the 1800s. The most notable of these reforms was called the Tanzimat, which aimed to modernize, industrialize, and centralize the Ottoman state. Thus, European-style institutions and government ministries were created, equal rights were promised to all Ottoman citizens regardless of religion, and secular education was expanded. This all culminated in the 1876 constitution, which placed defined limits on the sultan’s power. While the Tanzimat was not perfect (the constitution was suspended in February 1878, and the empire continued to face massive economic problems), these reforms challenge the notion of the Ottoman Empire being in an inevitable state of decline.

The Beginning of the War

On June 28th, 1914, Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke of Austria-Hungary Franz Ferdinand. This triggered a chain of events that ultimately led to World War I. First, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Then, Russia, which was allied with Serbia, declared war on Austria-Hungary. Backing Austria-Hungary, Germany declared war on Russia, widening the conflict. Its invasion of Belgium and declaration of war on France then helped draw Britain fully into the war.

The Ottomans did not immediately declare war, but they did sign a secret alliance treaty with Germany in August 1914. They then finally entered the conflict in October 1914 when Ottoman troops fired on Russian ports, which forced Russia and its allies to declare war on the empire.

The Four Fronts

World War I saw the Ottomans fight on four fronts. First, in 1915, the Allies attempted to open a sea route to Russia via the Dardanelles Strait. However, they first needed to take the Gallipoli Peninsula. The Ottomans heavily fortified the cliffs above the beaches, and the steep terrain made it extremely difficult for the Allies to gain ground. Thus, in January 1916, after about eight months of fighting and after suffering hundreds of thousands of casualties, the Allies evacuated.

While the Ottomans were successful in Gallipoli, they proved less effective elsewhere. For instance, in the Caucasus, they fought the Russians. Led by Enver Pasha, Ottoman troops were inadequately equipped for the harsh conditions. The most significant disastrous event was the Battle of Sarikamish in December 1914 and January 1915, which resulted in tens of thousands of Ottoman casualties and forced operations to be temporarily suspended in the region.

In Mesopotamia, the British quickly captured Basra in 1914, a port city in southern Iraq. This convinced the Allies that they could immediately push forward to take Baghdad. But, after an Ottoman counterattack and siege at the town of Kut al-Amara, over 13,000 Allied troops surrendered. Despite this defeat, the British regrouped and, with stronger logistics and intelligence, recommenced their offensive in late 1916. They finally took Baghdad in 1917, and by the time the Armistice treaties were signed in late 1918, the Ottomans had lost almost all of Mesopotamia.

In 1915, the Ottomans launched an offensive in the Sinai Peninsula in an attempt to reach the Suez Canal. The British repelled them and forced the Ottomans back into Palestine. Around the same time, the British were supporting an anti-Ottoman Arab revolt in the Arabian Peninsula by providing the Hejazis with weapons and intelligence. Most famously, the British made promises for an "independent Arab kingdom" in a correspondence between diplomat Henry McMahon and the Sharif (emir) of Mecca, Sharif Hussein. This led to the Arab revolt, a guerrilla-style insurgency against the Ottoman Empire. This two-pronged attack, from the British in Sinai and the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula, greatly weakened the Ottomans. Indeed, the British managed to capture Jerusalem in December 1917, and they met up with the Arabs in Damascus in October 1918.

Legacy

In October 1918, the Ottomans signed the Armistice of Mudros, which ended their participation in World War I. The Allies subsequently occupied Istanbul, and the non-Anatolian parts of the empire were primarily divided between France and Britain. The Ottoman Empire then ceased to exist in 1922, with Turkey emerging as its successor state in 1923. Therefore, World War I can largely be seen as responsible for the end of the empire. However, at the same time, the Ottoman victory at Gallipoli, and to a lesser extent in Mesopotamia, indicates that the empire was stronger, even in its dying days, than is often remembered.