Slavery In The Ottoman Empire

Slavery played a major role in the Ottoman Empire. However, some features of Ottoman slavery made it distinct from other forms in other empires, including increased social mobility and a lack of a racial or hereditary basis. Regardless, Ottoman slavery was still a coercive and inhumane institution. Furthermore, it lasted longer than most other forms, persisting until the very end of the empire's existence. All these factors make investigating the history of Ottoman slavery in more detail a worthwhile endeavour.

Origins

The Ottoman Empire did not introduce slavery in Anatolia in the 1300s; it had existed in the Islamic world since Islam's inception. Nonetheless, as the Ottomans expanded throughout the 14th century, they adopted Islamic slavery practices and institutionalised them. Early sources of slaves included war captives from the Balkans and other regions in Eastern Europe, as well as Georgians and Circassians from the Caucasus. As the Ottomans expanded into North Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, and other places around the Horn of Africa also became key suppliers of slaves.

The Devshirme System

Perhaps the most well-known and unique component of Ottoman slavery was the devshirme system ("child levy"). This functioned as follows: Christian boys from the Balkans were forcibly taken by Ottoman officials. They were then converted to Islam and trained in elite schools. Many of these boys became members of the Janissaries, an elite military corps tasked with protecting the sultan. As one of the first modern standing armies, the Janissaries fought in every major early battle and proved indispensable in the process of Ottoman territorial expansion. Over time, they gained significant political power, reaching a point where they revolted whenever the Sultan enacted a policy that challenged their privileges. The boys who did not become Janissaries also often managed to rise to major positions of influence, frequently becoming governors of provinces or even grand viziers. All this demonstrated that the devershirme system allowed for significant social mobility. Nonetheless, the core of this system was still forcible child collection and enslavement.

Other Forms of Slavery

Not all slavery in the Ottoman Empire occurred in the context of the devshirme system. Most slaves served in domestic and urban contexts. These roles were gendered; men held administrative or labor positions, whereas women did domestic and childcare work. According to Islamic law, concubinage was permitted. Therefore, women, usually from the Caucasus or the Balkans, often served as slaves in harems.

Slaves in these domestic and urban positions still had (comparatively) more freedom and opportunities for social mobility than slaves in other contemporary empires. For instance, they could convert to Islam, marry, and in some cases, even own property. They were also freed relatively frequently, with emancipation often occurring after seven to ten years. Nevertheless, abuse of all forms was common, including widespread sexual exploitation of female slaves. One particular brutal practice was the castration of male slaves, which often resulted in death. In short, despite some comparatively better practices, Ottoman slavery was still fundamentally inhumane.

Decline and (eventual) Abolition

In the 18th and 19th centuries, slavery began to decline in the Ottoman Empire. This occurred for several reasons. First, it was not as useful as it once was. A major reason for this lack of utility was the Janissaries. Whereas in the early days of the empire, they formed one of the best armies in Europe and the Middle East, by the 1700s and 1800s, the Janissaries had become outdated and ineffective. Hence, in 1826, they were brutally abolished in an affair known as the "Auspicious Incident". With this, any remnants of the devshirme system (which had already been officially abolished in the 1700s) were now gone.

A series of legal reforms in the mid-1800s also made slavery less popular. Known as the Tanzimat, they aimed to strengthen Istanbul's control over the empire's far reaches and establish legal equality among Ottoman citizens. Slavery was seen as incompatible with these reforms and thus became increasingly less prominent. Around this same time, most European powers were also abolishing slavery. Therefore, not wanting to become diplomatically isolated, the Ottomans banned various slave trades from the 1850s to the 1880s. Importantly, however, the ownership of slaves was never formally abolished, and it continued into the 20th century. Indeed, only after the empire collapsed did its successor state, Turkey, explicitly ban slavery in 1923.

Legacy and Importance

One cannot understand the Ottoman Empire without comprehending the role slavery played in its history. In the early days, the devshirme system was indispensable in creating a superior military to other powers, allowing the Ottomans to rapidly accumulate vast swaths of territory. Slaves also played a major role in everyday domestic and urban life. Finally, while slavery declined in popularity in the 1800s, it persisted throughout the empire's entire existence.