How Did The Cold War Begin?

Lasting for the better part of 50 years, the Cold War was the defining event of the second half of the 20th century. A period of geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR), it is often portrayed as inevitable due to the incompatibility of communism and capitalism as economic and political systems. However, analysing the beginning of the conflict demonstrates that this was not necessarily the case. Indeed, while there were some reasons for concern during the American-Soviet alliance of World War II, many also believed that the two countries could coexist peacefully. Therefore, exploring why the tensions ultimately emerged offers broader insights into the Cold War as a whole.

Inevitable Tensions?

In June 1941, Germany invaded the USSR. Despite being a communist state and having signed a non-aggression pact with Germany less than two years prior, the invasion resulted in a wave of sympathy from the Western democracies toward the USSR. Regardless, countries like the United Kingdom and the US were not willing to give the Soviets much direct help (at least initially) because they were worried that any supplies would be lost to the Germans. Relations between the West and the USSR were also strained by several notable human rights abuses, including a massacre of over 20,000 Poles in the Katyn Forest in April 1943 by the Soviet secret police. Moreover, as the Red Army beat the Germans back, it occupied Eastern Europe, making many in the West nervous about the possible geopolitical implications.

Despite these tensions, there were also reasons for optimism regarding Soviet-Western relations. American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in particular, was willing to work with the USSR. He understood that, from the Soviets' perspective, they had been invaded by the West twice in 30 years, thereby necessitating a buffer zone in the form of a Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe. At the "Big Three" conference in Tehran in November 1943, and again in Yalta in February 1945, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and Roosevelt also found that they could get along well on a personal level. This was helped by Roosevelt making a conscious effort to never exclude Stalin from negotiations, ensuring that he did not have private conversations with Churchill behind the Soviet leader's back.

The Cracks Begin to Form

A major shift in the dynamic of these world leaders occurred when Roosevelt died in April 1945. The new President, Harry S. Truman, was far blunter and less sympathetic to Stalin. Whereas Roosevelt was willing to accept a temporary period of Soviet-backed authoritarian governments in Eastern Europe, Truman stated that democracy was the correct and moral system, and that the Soviets' failure to support democracy was wrong. Thus, American aid to the USSR stopped in September 1945. To Stalin, this was a massive insult; the USSR was the main reason why World War II was won, so abandoning them during the reconstruction process was akin to betrayal. Therefore, Stalin began to tighten his grip on Eastern Europe. Whereas before, there was talk of the countries adopting the Finnish model of neutrality from American and Soviet influence, governments across Eastern Europe were slowly overtaken by the communists. First, the Soviets installed a genuine coalition with communists and non-communists; however, the communists were given control of the Ministry of Interior. Then, this real coalition was installed by a fake coalition that the communists dominated. The third and final step saw all other parties eliminated and the communists taking complete control.

Western Aid and the Berlin Blockade

The governing of Germany also proved to be a source of tension between the West and the USSR. After the war, the US, the UK, France, and the USSR all occupied Germany and divided it into four occupation zones. Since the capital, Berlin, was in the Soviet occupation zone, it was also divided between the four countries. One way to spur economic growth in the now devastated German economy was to encourage inter-German trade, a process hindered by the country's division. Thus, the German economy in the Western occupation zones was instead jump-started by economic aid and currency reform. Financial assistance came from the Marshall Plan, in which $13-14 billion was sent to Western Europe, $2.5 billion of which was received by Germany. As for currency, the Reichsmark (RM) had been devalued during the war due to massive federal deficits. Thus, the British and Americans introduced the Deutschmark (DM), allowing Germans to exchange 60 RM for 40 DM immediately and 20 DM later.

Importantly, this aid and currency reform did not occur in the Soviet occupation zone. Stalin believed that, on top of the economic benefits, these measures were intended to bring Germany into the American sphere of influence. Thus, in retaliation, the Soviets cut off ground access to Berlin in 1948. Despite initial talk of breaking through the blockade militarily, the Western Allies eventually decided to fly supplies into the city. This "Berlin Airlift" moved over 2 million tons of food and other types of aid over the course of the blockade, which was cancelled in May 1949 after becoming economically and politically unsustainable for the USSR. Furthermore, rather than forcing Germany into the Soviet sphere of influence, the blockade pushed West Berliners to the Americans, who had helped supply them for the better half a year. This was indicative of the now seemingly intractable divisions between the Soviet and Western occupation zones, with the Berlin Blockade occurring around the same time as the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

The Nuclear Factor

The final factor that contributed to divisions was nuclear weapons. The Americans had been developing the atomic bomb for years, successfully testing it on July 16, 1945. Soviet intelligence agencies knew this and knew that the Americans were keeping it secret from them. This sowed further distrust and resulted in the Soviets creating their own nuclear program to ensure they kept pace militarily. As demonstrated by the annihilation of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, the sheer destructive power of nuclear weapons made them one of the most consequential developments of the Cold War.

Legacy

Despite an initial willingness from both sides to work through their differences, a change in American government, the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe, and the tensions inherent in dividing a country into four occupation zones gave way to deeply entrenched divisions between the United States and the Soviet Union. The nuclear factor exacerbated all this. Indeed, as would soon be seen, fear of losing out of this power and being on the receiving end of it were significant contributing factors in the escalation of the Cold War.